Agree or disagree with Lay Off the Layoffs Essay

Agree or disagree with Lay Off the Layoffs - Essay Example One shares similar contentions that despite the apparent justification or rationales of organizations that opt to lay-off employees, the long-term negative effects are immensely significant to overlook. It is commendable to have provided the general reasons why organizations resort to layoffs in the first place. I am sure that members of the board of directors, the executive management team, as well as senior management, have all exhausted strategies, resources, time, and efforts to ensure that their respective organizations would survive the most tediously pressing impact of recessionary effects that impinge on their operations. As revealed, â€Å"the majority of the layoffs that have taken place during this recession†¦arent the result of a broken business model† (Pfeffer par. 4). Therefore, I honestly believe that the people who have direct governance and jurisdiction to ensuring that the organization survives have done their respective extensive and comprehensive research before resorting to the controversial downsizing decision. In retrospect, one would like to take the position of the devil’s advocate in trying to evaluate, despite knowing the costs of layoffs, why would management still opt to decide on downsizing if it would mean the demise of the organization? After taking into consideration the myths in downsizing, one realizes that as the last option to ensure continued survival of the organization in a recession, the effectiveness of even considering this option lies in the manner by which downsizing or layoffs are communicated, implemented, and managed. Not all organizations that downsized failed. In much the same way, not all organizations that should have laid off employees and did not, succeed. The recent hullaballoo regarding Microsoft’s memo signifying laying off thousands of employees had stirred mixed reactions (Roose). According to Foley, â€Å"as a result of the layoffs, Microsoft officials said the

Import and Export Essay Example for Free

Import and Export Essay Physical Exports: If the goods physically go out of the country or services are rendered outside the country then it is called as physical export. Deemed Exports: Where the goods do not go out of the country physically they can be termed as deemed exports. This will be subject to certain conditions as prescribed by the DGFT. Under Deemed Exports, the goods may be supplied to the manufacturer exporter who ultimately export a finished product of which this supply forms a part and ultimately go out of the country. E.g.  Supply of fabrics to the garment exporter who exports the garments made out of the said fabric. The government may announce from time to time the types of supplies that may be considered as deemed export. The Foreign Trade Policy gives the list of supplies considered under the Deemed Export Category. The policies and procedures are different for Physical Exports and Deemed Exports as also the benefits available. In a nutshell, Deemed Exports do not enjoy all the benefits that are available under Physical Export. The Foreign Trade defines exports as taking out of India any goods by land, sea, air. Although the act does not term them as â€Å"Physical Exports†, we have to put phrase to distinguish it from â€Å"Deemed Exports† which is sales in India but considered as exports for limited purpose. Types of Exporters: Exporters can be basically classified into two groupsManufacturer Exporter: As the exporter has the facility to manufacturer the product he intends to export and hence he exports the products manufactured by him. Merchant Exporter: An exporter who does not have the facility to manufacture an item. But, he procures the same from other manufacturers or from the market and exports the same. An exporter can be both a manufacturer exporter as well as a merchant exporter, he can export product manufactured by him or he can export items bought from the market. Once it is decided to export, it is mandatory on your part to follow certain procedures, rules and regulations as prescribed by various regulatory authorities such as DGFT, RBI, and Customs. These procedures, rules and regulations are laid down in the Exim Policy 2004-09, Exchange Control Manual, Customs Act etc. Accordingly Export documents are required to be prepared keeping in view of the requirement of the foreign buyers and our regulatory authorities. INCOTERMS 2013 What Incoterms Rules Are 11 terms of shipment and delivery provided by the International Chamber of Commerce for use in contracts for the business-to-business sales/purchases of tangible, portable goods, for implementation 1/1/11. Legacy to a long tradition of international use since 1936. Written to reflect rather than dictate trade practice. Always abbreviated by a three character English language acronym. Always accompanied by a geographic place the more precise the better. Updated to reflect current trade practice Used exclusively in sales/purchase contracts (we’ll call these â€Å"sales contracts†). Increasingly considered as a replacement for the former Uniform Commercial Code shipment and delivery terms (UCC §2-319 through  §2-324) What Incoterms Rules Aren’t Law. They must be specified in order to apply. All inclusive cannot address such issues as customary operations of carriers, ports, trades, government regulations, etc. What Incoterms Rules Do Divide costs, risks and responsibilities between sellers and buyers. ï‚ · Guide one or the other party into subsidiary contracts required to fulfill designated tasks such as contracts of carriage and contracts of insurance. What Incoterms Rules Don’t Do Address passage of title. Address recognition of revenue. Address remedies for breach of contract. Address more than one contract. (drop shipments) Refer to â€Å"ship’s rail† which changes the delivery point for FOB, CFR, CIF. Incoterms ® is a registered trademark of the International Chamber of Commerce, registered in several countries and used with permission. Definitions Delivery: indicates where the risk of loss passes from seller to buyer. Shipment contract a type of sales/purchase contract under which the seller’s responsibility ends when the contract goods have been handed over to a carrier (i.e., the seller delivers by shipping). EXW, FCA, FAS, FOB,  CPT, CIP, CFR and CIF Incoterms rules are used in shipment contracts. Arrival contract: a type of sales/purchase contract under which the seller’s responsibility ends when the goods have arrived at the agreed place (i.e., the seller delivers when goods arrive). DAT, DAP and DDP Incoterms ® rules are used in arrival contracts. Liner terms: carrier loads and unloads vessel (used with waterborne transport). Ex Works (EXW) + Named Place (place where the shipment originates usually the seller’s premises) Breakdown:  Seller: have goods available when promised and packaged to the extent known or agreed. Buyer: everything else (pre-carriage, export clearance, main carriage, import clearance, on-carriage) Free Carrier (FCA) + Named Place (either place where shipment originates usually the seller’s premises or another place on the seller’s side.) Breakdown: A) When accompanied by the place where the shipment originates Seller: have goods available when promised, packaged to the extent known or agreed, load collecting vehicle, export clearance. Buyer: everything else (pre-carriage, main carriage, import clearance, on-carriage) B) When accompanied by another place on the seller’s side Seller: have goods available when promised, packaged to the extent known or agreed, load delivering vehicle, pre-carriage, export clearance. Buyer: everything else (unload delivering vehicle, main carriage, import clearance, on-carriage) Carriage Paid To (CPT) + Named Place (on the buyer’s side) Breakdown: Seller: deliver the goods appropriately packaged to the carrier for transportation to the named place of destination and pay all transport costs thereto. (The seller delivers at the first carrier unless specified otherwise in the sales contract.), export clearance. Buyer: unloading, import clearance, on carriage Carriage And Insurance Paid To (CIP) + Named Place (on the buyer’s side) Breakdown: Seller: as with CPT except seller must also provide at least minimum cover insurance in such a manner that the buyer can claim directly from the insurer Buyer: unloading, import clearance, on carriage Delivered At Terminal (DAT) + Named Place (terminal on buyer’s side) Breakdown: Seller: export clearance, deliver the goods appropriately packaged and unloaded at the named destination terminal and pay all transport costs thereto. Buyer: import clearance, on carriage Delivered At Place (DAP) + Named Place (on the buyer’s side) Breakdown: Seller: export clearance, deliver the goods appropriately packaged at the named destination and pay all transport costs thereto. Buyer: unloading, import clearance, on carriage Delivered Duty Paid (DDP) + Named Place (on the buyer’s side) Breakdown: Seller: export clearance, deliver the goods appropriately packaged and cleared for import at the named destination and pay all transport costs thereto. Buyer: unloading, on carriage Free Alongside Ship (FAS) + Named Place (alongside a vessel at port on the seller’s side) Breakdown: Seller delivers goods appropriately export packed alongside the buyer-designated vessel at the port on the seller’s side, export clearance. Buyer: everything else (vessel loading, main carriage, import clearance, on carriage) Free On Board (FOB) + Named Place (loaded on a vessel at a port on the seller’s side) Breakdown: Seller delivers goods appropriately export packed on board the buyer-designated vessel at the port on the seller’s side, export clearance. Buyer: everything else (main carriage, import clearance, on carriage) Cost And Freight (CFR) + Named Place (a port on the buyer’s side) Breakdown: Seller delivers goods appropriately export packed on board the seller-designated vessel at the port on the seller’s side and pays transportation costs to the agreed port on the buyer’s side, export clearance. Buyer: everything else (vessel unloading import clearance, on carriage) Cost Insurance And Freight (CIF) + Named Place (a port on the buyer’s side) Breakdown: Seller: as with CFR except seller must also provide at least minimum cover insurance in such a manner that the buyer can claim directly from the insurer Buyer: everything else (vessel unloading import clearance, on carriage) CASE STUDY: You are the exporter. Your factory is situated 100 km from the port. Products can be moved by rail to port for loading, port facilities are good. Insurance is easily arranged. Your country is stable. Ships are available for shipment. What delivery terms would you suggest for sales of your product for the following countries. Country A: Good infrastructure Efficient inland transportation Known for labor dispute Country B: Excellent inland transportation Port congestion from 10 to 90 days Country C: Good port facilities Efficient inland transportation Buyer not reliable Country D: None of the above disadvantages Country is stable Buyer is reliable SHIPPING DOCUMENTS SELLER Invoice: includes value of the cargo, details related to payment, customs duties, insurance claims, declaration of permits and L/C negotiations Types of invoices: †¢Ã‚  Commercial invoice †¢Ã‚  Proforma invoice †¢Ã‚  Consular invoice †¢Ã‚  Customs invoice †¢Ã‚  Non-commercial value invoice Packing list: This statement gives the packing details of the goods in prescribed format. It is very useful document for customs at the time of examination and warehouse keeper of the buyer to maintain a record of inventory and to effect delivery. Essential contents: †¢Ã‚  Description †¢Ã‚  Measurement †¢Ã‚  Quantity Certificate of origin: The certificate issued by local chamber of commerce indicates that the goods which are being exported are actually manufactures in a specific country mentioned therein. It is sent by the exporter to the importer and is useful for clearance of goods from the customs authority of importing country. CARRIERS Bill of Lading (B/L): The document issued by shipping company acknowledging the receipt of goods mentioned in the bill for shipment on board or vessel. The B/L is the legal document to be referred in case of any dispute over the shipment. B/L can be a negotiable document. It contains: †¢Ã‚  The shipping companys name and address †¢Ã‚  The consignees name and address †¢Ã‚  The port of loading and port of discharge †¢Ã‚  Shipping marks and particulars †¢Ã‚  Number of packages and goods †¢Ã‚  Gross weight and net weight †¢Ã‚  Freight details and name of the vessel †¢Ã‚  Signature of the shipping companys agent  Common types of B/L †¢Ã‚  Clean  dirty  stale †¢Ã‚  Through/Tran-shipment †¢Ã‚  Combine transport †¢Ã‚  Master †¢Ã‚  House Airway Bill: The receipt issued by Airlines Company or its agent for carriage  of goods is a contract between the owner of the goods and the carrier. It is a proof of receipt/booking, does not specify loading. Buyer Shipping guarantee (if necessary): Shipping Guarantee is given by the buyer in support of clearing cargo with put B/L. It also protects the carrier against any fraud and indemnify against any claims. CARGO INSURANCE Cargo insurance is the document obtained from the freight forwarder used to assure the consignee that insurance will cover the loss of damage to the cargo during transit. Reasons for Insurance: Protection against risk Prevent financial loss Requirement by bank e.g. L/C term Selling on certain term e.g. CIF Carrier limited liability Reduced business anxiety Documents necessary for claim: Companys cover letter Original policy Shipping invoice Packing list Original B/L or AWB Survey report Landing Account (unloading/discharge report) PAYMENT MODES: Advance Credit account Consignment sale Documentary collection 1. Document Against Payment (D/P): Supplier ship goods and forward bill of exchange to buyers bank through his own bank. No credit involved and buyer obtain title of goods after payment. 2. Document Against Acceptance (D/A): Supplier ship goods and forward bill of exchange to buyers bank through his own bank. Credit period involved and buyer obtain title of goods before payment. Letter of credit (L/C)  It is the letter of undertaking by importers bank to pay overseas exporter against exporters shipping document. Shipping document must strictly adhere to the terms and conditions of the L/C. L/C Procedures: Sales contract between seller and buyer Buyer open L/C with the issuing bank Issuing bank sends L/C to advising bank Advising bank sends L/C to seller Seller ship cargo Seller presents documents to negotiation bank for payment Negotiating bank checks documents and forward to issuing bank Issuing bank checks and pay to negotiating bank Negotiating bank pays to Seller Buyer pays issuing bank Issuing bank releases shipping documents to buyer Buyer uses issuing documents to clear cargo Types of L/C: Revocable Irrevocable 1. Confirmed 2. unconfirmed Red clause Revolving Transferable Back to back Advantages Secure Financial assistance Bank control and hold title to goods Seller receives payment before buyer receives goods Disadvantage Over reliance on shipping documentation No physical inspection of goods Bank not familiar with shipping practices Subject to fraud Very costly ADVANTAGES OF EXPOT BUSINESS Creating goodwill between nations with divergent interests. Exchange of goods unavailable overseas Enhance domestic competitiveness Increase sales and profits Gain global market share Exploit corporate technology and know-how Extend sales potential of existing product Stabilize seasonal market fluctuations Enhance potential for corporate expansion Sell excess production capacity Gain information about foreign competition CHALLENGES IN EXPOT BUSINESS Political and commercial risk Compliance to foreign regulations and standards cultural and language differences Non payment by foreign buyer Currency exchange rates Damage to goods in transit intellectual property rights

Acid Rain :: essays research papers fc

Acid Rain and its Effects On Our Aquatic Ecosystems In the past century, one of the greatest threats to North America's aquatic ecosystem has been the widespread acidification of hundreds of thousands of waterways. Acid rain has effected plant and animal life within aquatic ecosystems, as well as microbiologic activity by affecting the rates of decomposition and the accumulation of organic matter. What causes this poisonous rain, and what can be done to improve North America's water quality and prevent future catastrophes? To answer these questions, we must first examine the cause and formation of acid rain, as well as understand ways to decrease or prevent its formation. Formation of acid rain. Acid deposition, more commonly known as acid rain, occurs when emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and oxidants to form acidic compounds. This mixture forms a mild solution of sulfuric and nitric acid which then falls to the earth in either wet (rain, snow, sleet or fog) or dry (gas and particles) form. Approximately one-half of the atmosphere's acidity falls back to earth through dry deposition in the form of particles and gases, and are then spread hundreds of miles by winds where they settle on surfaces of buildings, cars, homes, and trees. When acid rain falls, the dry deposited gases and particles are sometimes washed from buildings, trees and other surfaces making the runoff water combine with the acid rain more acidic than the falling acid rain alone. This new combination is referred to as acid deposition. The runoff water is then transported by strong prevailing winds and public sewer systems into lakes and s treams. Although some natural sources such as volcanic eruptions, fire and lightening contribute to the emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, more than 90% is the result of human activities such as coal burning, smelting of metals such as zinc, nickel and copper, and the burning of oil, coal and gas in power plants and automobiles. When does rain become acidic? Scientists determine whether rain or lake water is acidic by measuring its pH (the measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution on a scale of 0 to 14). A value of 7 is considered neutral, whereas values less than 7 are acidic and values over 7 are alkaline or basic. A change of one unit on the pH scale represents a factor of ten in acidity; for example, a solution with a pH of five is ten times as acid as one with a pH of six .

Case Study of H.B. Fuller Essay

Question No 1: Is H.B.Fuller responsible for the addiction of street children to its Resistol products? Do you agree or disagree with the statement that the social conditions in Honduras and Guatemala are ultimately responsible for misuse of H.B. Fuller products and that neither the product nor the company is to blame? Do you agree or disagree that a parent company is not responsible for the activities of its subsidiaries? Explain your answers full. a) I don’t think that H.B.Fuller is responsible. Because the thing is that they’re just doing their business and nothing else. It’s their right to do whatever business they want. It is just like that when you go to the well, if the dog fell into the well so what we can do then? The company is just concerned with the business of producing glue. To maintain the status of the company, they need to use best chemicals out of best. It is the duty of the company to maintain the quality. If there isn’t any substitute o f that glue then they’re helpless. They can’t hang their company. b) If we talk about the children who were affected by the habit of sniffing the glue, children can understand what is right and what is wrong if they’re the part of the company. If they’re sniffing the glue, it is up to them. Company never said about that. To sniff the glue is their action why the company should be blame? c) Of course! I’m agreeing with the statement that H.B.Fuller is not responsible for the activities of its subsidiary. To let the children know about the duties and precaution is the responsibility of the company. If the children are habitual of this thing, then I just want to say that it’s very hard to get rid of any type addiction. One more thing that I want to discuss is that when I’m drinker then what’s the problem with you? I know about the side effects of this thing. So in this case, company is parent it is right but they’re not taking work from the children for the sake of Allah. Company is paying for what they are doing for the business. Question No 2: In your judgment did H.B.Fuller conduct itself in a morally appropriate manner? Explain your answer. In my point of view, It’s I think a good step which the company taken that they stopped selling of that glue in small jars. If the glue is available in small jars, children have the maximum chance to buy that glue because it is affordable for them. When the company is selling that glue in large size of containers, it becomes much easier to protect the children from using the glue. Because large size of containers must not be in reach of children. We’ll not go for utilitarianism because life is the only thing which is priceless. Company should care about the health of children. They did a good job but it costs the company very much. After all they are running their business in a very large scale having revenue more than $1 Billion (1995). They have found the safe way to protect themselves from winding up the company. Question No 3: What, if anything, should the company have done that it did not do? After considering the whole case, we have got something which is not done by the company but the company should do. The company should advice the children about the use of this glue and also aware the government about this product. I think, after advising the children there might be less chances of spreading disease. Children could be protected from the harmful outcomes. There are some more points which should be taken into the account by the company: †¢ Company should mention the precautions on their product about the usage of the product. †¢ Company should start the campaign regarding the usage of the product. †¢ Company should advice the children time to time about the usage and drawbacks of the product.

Outline the Main Principles of Utilitarianism

Outline the main principles of utilitarianism Utilitarianism is a teleological theory. Three main philosophers have come up with different types of utilitarianism these being: Bentham, Mill and Singer. Bentham introducing the idea of Act Utilitarianism, Mill adapting the ideas of Bentham and trying improve the flaws he saw with his Rule utilitarianism and Singer with his preference utilitarianism theory. Bentham was hedonist, meaning he was a pleasure seeker. Bentham portrayed two main features of utilitarianism, one being the consequentialist principle.The consequentialist principle states that the rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by the goodness or badness of the results that flow from it this shows the teleological side of the theory. The second feature portrayed is the Utility principle this is â€Å"the greatest good for the greatest number. † But Bentham being a hedonist devised his own twist on this and stated that his principle would be â€Å"the greates t pleasure for the greatest number. † As he believed â€Å"nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters’ pain and pleasure.It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as what we shall do. † Bentham said if an event brought more pleasure and avoided pain then it was seen as good. Bentham devised a way of measuring pleasure and this was known as the hedonic calculus it was based on a quantitative scale and the seven aspects to help you calculate whether something was painful or pleasurable were: Duration, Remoteness, Purity, Richness, Intensity, Certainty and Extent. These factors all made up the Hedonic calculus. Bentham’s utilitarian theories and ideas are usually linked with the idea of Act utilitarianism.Act Utilitarianism says that the principle of utility should be applied to every individual situation. It states that a person should act when the anticipated result brings the most pleasure. One of the main principles of Utilitarianism is Act utilitarianism and Bentham idealism of this. Mill was Bentham’s godson, Mill adopted he godfathers ideas of utilitarianism but he saw flaws in his definition of the utility principle as Bentham viewed pleasure as being the main point of utility instead of good. Mill challenged his theory by trying to distinguish happiness from mere pleasure.Mill’s version of the theory is often referred to as â€Å"Eudaimonistic utilitarianism†. He defines happiness with his idea of higher and lower pleasures; higher pleasures usually linked with expanded your capacity for knowledge for example a higher pleasure would be reading Shakespeare as it’s increasing your knowledge. A lower pleasure would be seen as eating a McDonalds as it’s not seen to benefit your knowledge in any way. Mill’s utilitarian theory is linked with Rule-utilitarianism. Rule utilitarianism being one of the two classical types of utilitarianism, the ot her being act seen in Bentham’s theory.Act utilitarianism is the idea that an act is only right if it follows set rules to bring out the greater good for society. Act Utilitarianism is then broke down into â€Å"Weak rule† and â€Å"Strong rule†. Weak rule is the idea that you can actually break that rule if you believe it is going to bring the greater good. Strong Rule is the idea that once the rule has been agreed upon as being the best for society. You cannot break it, no matter what. It is believed that Mill is more a â€Å"Weak rule† utilitarian as the â€Å"strong rule† is moving towards a more absolutist approach.The last well known theory of utilitarianism is the most recent which was devised by a man named Peter Singer. Singer came up with a type of utilitarianism known as â€Å"preference utilitarianism†. Preference utilitarianism promotes actions that fulfil the interests of those beings involved. Singer believes you should have y our best interest at heart to minimise any sort of pain. An interesting point to Singer’s theory is that he believed everyone was equal. He believed in animal rights that every conscious creature should have equal rights and be taken into consideration.

Trauma Of Nature

Trauma Of Nature Free Online Research Papers When the sorrow strikes the door of heart, life seems restless with no glimpse of hope. Tears becomes dry in the ocean of eyes. Faces give no reaction. pain is what is left in the end, yet we live we die this is life but WHY?.. A supernatural force what we called as God has created this planet with some parameters, but in the greediness of having more and more has killed our moral and social values. We all have become mean, but for what we are doing so may be for our generations but do we know till that time it will be too late for them to enjoy the materialistic pleasure we have endorsed for them. I feel sorry for all human beings as they feel they are smart enough, but we all are greedy and cunning, hard to accept but except it. truth is truth, hard to believe and except. Enjoy today but do not spoil your tomorrow. By the time it is too late my words will be meaningless. The trauma of attack of nature will be hard and brutal. No one can cope with it never it was never it will be. Please do not avoid in the fear of wasting time and pleasure. think what we are doing. the time is running like a sweet poison. react now or ? Research Papers on Trauma Of NatureMind Travel19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraThe Spring and AutumnThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationThe Hockey GameGenetic EngineeringMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoCapital PunishmentPersonal Experience with Teen Pregnancy

Communist China Essays - Republic Of China, Republics, Free Essays

Communist China Essays - Republic Of China, Republics, Free Essays Communist China Communism in an Economically Developing China The future of communism in China is unknown, as the world economy becomes more international. Communism has been in China since 1949 and is still present in the countrys activities. Presently China is undergoing incredible economic growth and promises to be a dominant power early in the next century. Chinas social tradition has come under heavy pressure from forces of modernization generated in a large part by the sustained contact with the West that began in the middle of the nineteenth century. The Western incursion, not only refined China militarily but brought in its course new ideas- nationalism, science and technology, and innovations in politics, philosophy, and art. Chinese leaders have sought to preserve the nations cultural uniqueness by promoting specifically Chinese blends of tradition and modernity. China has undergone several major political transformations from a feudal-like system in early historical times, to a centralized bureaucratic empire that lasted through many unpredictable changes till 1911, to a republic with a communist form of government in the mainland since 1949. Economic geography and population pressure help account for the traditionally controlling role of the state in China. The constant indispensability for state interference, whether for great public works programs or simply to keep such a large society together, brought up an authoritarian political system. The family prevailed as the fundamental social, economic, and religious unit. Interdependence was very prominent in family relations while generation, age, sex and immediacy of kinship strictly governed relations within the family. Family rather than nation usually created the greatest allegiances with the result that nationalism as known to the West came late to the Chinese. In principle, the elite in the authoritarian political system achieved their positions through merit rather than birth or wealth. There was an examination system that provided a vehicle for recruiting talented citizens to serve the emperor, which was a valuable and unusual institution in a society characterized by personal connections. Democracy, individualism, and private property were kept carefully in check. Central state authority, however, rarely penetrated to the local level. Chinese leaders invented bureaucracy to keep the country unified and mastered the art of keeping government small. The Chinese search for a modern state began in the nineteenth century when two major sources of disorder overwhelmed the imperial institutions: domestic disintegration and foreign invasion. Between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Chinese population had doubled and redoubled. The problem of the population explosion created tremendous pressure on the limited farmland to provide sufficient food supply. For economic, religious, of ethnic reasons, peasant uprisings began to erupt. Moreover, beginning with the Opium War of 1832-1842, the imperial army suffered a series of defeats at the hands of the industrial powers of the West. The image of a shattering imperial dynasty directed rebellion and dissolution within China, exemplified by the Taiping Rebellion of 1851-1864 that nearly toppled the Qing dynasty. (Zheng, Party vs. State in Post-1949 China, 30) The reform measures in the first decade of this century were aimed at replacing dynastic rule with a new form of government. Among the most significant changes was the abolition of the civil service exam in 1905, which virtually cut off the connections among the emperor, the ruling ideology, and the official gentry. This time the imperial rulers hoped to save themselves by experimenting with some new institutional adaptations. A revolution was menacing; students who had returned from abroad came with ideas harmful to the imperial rule. Following the overthrow of the imperial regime in the Revolution of 1922, central authority dissipated and the country was divided among regional warlords. Reunification, begun by the Nationalist government under the Kuomintang (KMT); was interrupted by the Japanese invasion in the 1930s. The unparalleled institutional crisis hastened the Chinese search for alternative means of reorganizing China. Since the last dynasty, Qing, collapsed construction of a modern Chinese state had been the goal shared by many Chinese modernizers. For them, this magnificent goal meant that China could one-day stand in the world community on an equal footing with other member states. While the first two decades of this century may have saw China in Chaos, this time period also produced a free intellectual environment. (Qtd. Imfeld, China as